LO 2.1: Describe how sociologists use data to describe social life.
Sociologists use data to describe and explain social life, differing from common sense and journalistic explanations by following scientific principles. They gather, evaluate, and interpret evidence to test sociological theories.
Sociologists use data to describe social life and develop theories to explain this data, adhering to scientific principles for gathering, evaluating, and interpreting evidence.
Common sense relies on personal experience, while journalistic accounts often draw on information from experts. Sociological explanations, however, are based on scientific research.
Peer-reviewed research involves experts reviewing and providing feedback on studies before publication, ensuring high-quality information. This process confirms the validity of research methods and results.
Sociologists use both primary data (collected by the researcher) and secondary data (collected by other researchers or organizations) to answer sociological questions.
LO 2.2: Compare different sociological theoretical explanations of social behavior.
Sociologists use data to describe and explain social life, differing from common sense and journalistic explanations by following scientific principles. They gather, evaluate, and interpret evidence to test sociological theories.
Sociologists use data to describe social life and develop theories to explain this data, adhering to scientific principles for gathering, evaluating, and interpreting evidence.
Common sense relies on personal experience, while journalistic accounts often draw on information from experts. Sociological explanations, however, are based on scientific research.
Peer-reviewed research involves experts reviewing and providing feedback on studies before publication, ensuring high-quality information. This process confirms the validity of research methods and results.
Sociologists use both primary data (collected by the researcher) and secondary data (collected by other researchers or organizations) to answer sociological questions.
LO 2.3: Describe the methodological approaches sociologists use.
Sociologists use data to describe and explain social life, differing from common sense and journalistic explanations by following scientific principles. They gather, evaluate, and interpret evidence to test sociological theories.
Sociologists use data to describe social life and develop theories to explain this data, adhering to scientific principles for gathering, evaluating, and interpreting evidence.
Common sense relies on personal experience, while journalistic accounts often draw on information from experts. Sociological explanations, however, are based on scientific research.
Peer-reviewed research involves experts reviewing and providing feedback on studies before publication, ensuring high-quality information. This process confirms the validity of research methods and results.
Sociologists use both primary data (collected by the researcher) and secondary data (collected by other researchers or organizations) to answer sociological questions.
LO 2.4: Identify the criteria with which sociologists evaluate research quality.
Sociologists use data to describe and explain social life, differing from common sense and journalistic explanations by following scientific principles. They gather, evaluate, and interpret evidence to test sociological theories.
Sociologists use data to describe social life and develop theories to explain this data, adhering to scientific principles for gathering, evaluating, and interpreting evidence.
Common sense relies on personal experience, while journalistic accounts often draw on information from experts. Sociological explanations, however, are based on scientific research.
Peer-reviewed research involves experts reviewing and providing feedback on studies before publication, ensuring high-quality information. This process confirms the validity of research methods and results.
Sociologists use both primary data (collected by the researcher) and secondary data (collected by other researchers or organizations) to answer sociological questions.
LO 2.5: Interpret social scientific data.
Descriptive statistics summarize patterns in datasets, such as the percentage of survey respondents who are married or the average income of U.S. adults. Frequencies count occurrences, while percentages convert these counts into fractions of 100 for comparison. Rates describe how common or rare events like birth, marriage, or divorce are in a population, usually per 1,000, 10,000, or 100,000 people.
Divorce rates in the U.S. have declined since the 1980s, with younger adults cohabitating more and marrying later, which reduces the likelihood of divorce. However, divorce rates are higher among couples aged 50 and older.
The often-cited statistic that 50% of marriages end in divorce is misleading because it compares annual marriage and divorce rates without tracking specific marriages. Most currently married people have been married only once.
Sociologists use the mean, median, and mode to describe averages. The mean is the arithmetic average, the median is the middle value, and the mode is the most frequent value.
Correlation indicates a relationship between variables, while causation means one variable causes a change in another. Four criteria must be met to confirm causation: time order, patterned variation, logical relationship, and non-spuriousness. Sociological research rarely proves causation due to ethical and practical limitations in conducting experiments. However, correlational research can still guide policy and decision-making.
LO 2.6: Discuss the limitations of social science research.
Sociologists follow codes of ethics and often need approval from an Institutional Review Board (IRB) before conducting research with human subjects. Privacy and anonymity are crucial, and researchers use pseudonyms and limited details to protect participants. Informed consent is necessary, especially for protected populations like prisoners, children, and pregnant people.
Bias in research can arise from various sources, including the exclusion of certain populations, funders’ influence, and the race or gender of scholars. Governments may also bias research by altering or removing data that contradicts their agenda.
Sociologists aim to conduct value-free research, though this is contested due to inherent human values. Some sociologists focus on social justice and use their research to address urgent social problems. Participants can also bias research through misremembering or dishonesty, and researchers design studies to confirm honesty and consistency.