5.13 References
A little girl living in poverty… [Photograph]. BrandyTaylor from Getty Images Signature via Canva Pro.
Alcohol and drug addiction… [Photograph]. Africa images via Canva Pro.
Alexander, M. (2012). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.
American Gaming Association. (2025). State of play. https://www.americangaming.org/research/state-of-play-map/
Basile, K. C., Smith, S. G., Kresnow, M., Khatiwada, S., & Leemis, R. W. (2022). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2016/2017 report on sexual violence. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nisvs/documentation/nisvsReportonSexualViolence.pdf
Bastiampillai, T., Allison, S., Cubbage, J., Nestadt, P., Sharfstein J. (2022). U.S. suicide rates and the impact of major disasters over the last century. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, (24)2.https://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/covid-19/us-suicide-rates-impact-major-disasters-last-century/
Birdsey, J., Cornelius, M., Jamal, A., Park-Lee, E., Cooper, M. R., Wang, J., Sawdey, M. D., Cullen, K. A., & Neff, L. (2023). Tobacco product use among U.S. middle and high school students — National youth tobacco survey, 2023. Weekly, 72(44), 1173-1182. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7244a1.htm
Blosnich, J. R., Henderson, E. R., Coulter, R. W. S., Goldbach, J. T., & Meyer, I. H. (2020). Sexual orientation change efforts, adverse childhood experiences, and suicide ideation and attempt among sexual minority adults, United States, 2016-2018. American Journal of Public Health, 110(7), 1024-1030. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305637
Brenan, M. (2024a, August 20). Americans’ views of marijuana effects worsen. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/648821/americans-views-marijuana-effects-worsen.aspx
Brenan, M. (2024b, October 29). Smaller majorities say crime in U.S. is serious, increasing. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/652763/smaller-majorities-say-crime-serious-increasing.aspx
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2009). National crime victimization survey (NCVS). https://bjs.ojp.gov/data-collection/ncvs#:~:text=The%20NCVS%20collects%20information%20on,not%20reported%20to%20the%20police.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2025, May 29). Multi-year trends: Crime type. https://ncvs.bjs.ojp.gov/multi-year-trends/crimeType
CareerOneStop. (2017, August 25). 33-3051.01 – Police patrol officers [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=14D91NPvMz8&t=1s. In the public domain.
CareerOneStop. (2017, August 25). Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists career video [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rB8Zh8_1J9A. In the public domain.
CareerOneStop. (2018, July 25). Mental health, substance abuse, and behavioral disorder counselors career video [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pM_Xfm1Zdvk. In the public domain.
Carson, E. A. (2021, October). Suicide in local jails and state and federal prisons, 2000-2019 — Statistics tables. U.S. Department of Justice. https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh236/files/media/document/sljsfp0019st.pdf
Carson, E. A. (2024, October 15). Prisoners in 2022 — Statistical Tables. U.S. Department of Justice. https://bjs.ojp.gov/document/p22st.pdf
Carson, E. A., & Kluckow, R. (2023, February). Correctional populations in the United States, 2021 — Statistical tables. U.S. Department of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/library/publications/correctional-populations-united-states-2021-statistical-tables
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1994, November 18). Surveillance for selected tobacco-use behaviors — United States, 1900-1994. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00033881.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Preventing intimate partner violence. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/ipv/IPV-factsheet_2021.pdf
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, August 2). Illicit drug use. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/drug-use-illicit.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024a). Fast facts: Firearm injury and death. https://www.cdc.gov/firearm-violence/data-research/facts-stats/index.html#cdc_facts_stats_popu-who-is-affected
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024b). How to report a suicide-related cluster or get assistance. https://www.cdc.gov/suicide/prevention/cluster.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024c, September 10). Tobacco product use among adults — United States, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/media/pdfs/2024/09/cdc-osh-ncis-data-report-508.pdf
Centers for Disease Control. (2018, January 18). Cigarette smoking remains high among certain groups. https://archive.cdc.gov/www_cdc_gov/media/releases/2018/p0118-smoking-rates-declining.html
Colburn, G., & Aldern, C. P. (2022). Homelessness is a housing problem: How structural factors explain U.S. patterns. University of California Press.
Conrad, P., & Angell, A. 2004. “Homosexuality and Remedicalization.” Society 41(5):32–39.
Conrad, R. (1979). Types of medical social control. Sociology of Health and Illness, 1(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.1979.tb00175.x
Cook, A. K., & Worcman, N. (2019, July). Confronting the opioid epidemic: Public opinion toward the expansion of treatment services in Virginia. Health & Justice, 7(13). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-019-0095-8
Cornelius, M. E., Loretan, C. G., Jamal, A., Davis Lynn, B. C., Mayer, M., Alcantara, I. C., & Neff, L. (2023, May 5). Tobacco Product Use Among Adults – United States, 2021. Center for Disease Control. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7218a1.htm
Cyber Financial Crime with… [Photograph]. valentysemenov via Canva Pro.
Davern, M., Bautista, R., Freese, J., Herd, P., & Morgan, S. L. (2023). General Social Survey 1972-2022. NORC (2022 Release 1). https://gssdataexplorer.norc.org/trends
Davis Jr., E., Hansen, C., & Alas, H. (2024, April 30). Where is marijuana legal? A guide to marijuana legalization. U.S. News. https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/articles/where-is-marijuana-legal-a-guide-to-marijuana-legalization
DISA. (2025, April 28). Marijuana legality by state. https://disa.com/marijuana-legality-by-state
Drug Policy Facts. (2025). Annual number of arrests for drug offenses in the US by type of offense. https://www.drugpolicyfacts.org/table/annual-drug-arrests
Ducharme, J. (2023, December 12). Exclusive: Conversion therapy is still happening in almost every U.S. state. Time. https://time.com/6344824/how-common-is-conversion-therapy-united-states/
Durkheim, E. (1979). Suicide: A study in sociology (J. A. Spaulding, & G. Simpson, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Free Press. (Original work published 1951).
Durkheim, E. (1982). The rules of sociological method (Contemporary social theory) (S. Lukes, Trans; 2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
Esser, M., Leung, G., Sherk, A., et al. (2022, November 1). Estimated deaths attributable to excessive alcohol use among U.S. adults aged 20 to 64 years 2015 to 2019. JAMA Network Open, 5(11). https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2798004
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2025a). FBI Crime Data Explorer. https://cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2025b). Hate crime in the United States Incident analysis. https://cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/explorer/crime/hate-crime
Federal Trade Commission. (2024, February 9). As nationwide fraud losses top $10 billion in 2023, FTC steps up efforts to protect the public. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/02/nationwide-fraud-losses-top-10-billion-2023-ftc-steps-efforts-protect-public
Felson, J., Adamczyk, A., & Thomas, C. (2019). How and why have attitudes about cannabis legalization changed so much? Social Science Research, 78, 12-27. 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.12.011
Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
Friends dancing at a house party… [Photograph]. Jacob Lund via Canva Pro.
Fussell, S. (2021, June 3). The all-seeing eyes of New York’s 15,000 surveillance cameras. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/all-seeing-eyes-new-york-15000-surveillance-cameras/
Garnett, M. F. & Curtain, S. C. (2024, September). Suicide mortality in the United States, 2002-2022. Center for Disease Control. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db509.pdf
Garnett, M. F. & Miniño, A. M. (2024). Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 2003-2023. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db522.htm. In the public domain.
GLAAD. (2025). What is conversion therapy? https://www.glaad.org/conversiontherapy
Gramlich, J. (2024, April 24). What the data says about crime in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/04/24/what-the-data-says-about-crime-in-the-us/
Grawert, A., & Kim, N. (2023, May 9). Myths and realities: Understanding recent trends in violent crime. Brennan Center for Justice. https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/myths-and-realities-understanding-recent-trends-violent-crime
Green, A. E., Price-Feeney, M., Dorison, S. H., & Pick, C. J. (2020). Self-reported conversion efforts and suicidality among US LGBTQ youths and young adults, 2018. American Journal of Public Health, 110(8), 1221-1227. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305701
Gregory, L. (2021, May 24). The cost of living in Los Angeles in 2022. Rent Blog. https://www.rent.com/blog/cost-of-living-in-los-angeles/
Group of sports fans tailgating… [Photograph]. Monkey Business Images via Canva Pro.
Guns for sale… [Photograph]. artas from Getty Images via Canva Pro.
Hasin, D., & Walsh, C. (2021). Trends over time in adult cannabis use: A review of recent findings. Current Opinion in Psychology, 38, 80-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.03.005
Henry, T. A. (2019, August 16). Court listened to AMA on defining alcoholism as a disease, not a crime. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/public-health/court-listened-ama-defining-alcoholism-disease-not-crime
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Transaction Publishers.
Homelessness [Photograph]. MattGush from Getty Images via Canva Pro.
Internet Crime Complaint Center. (2025). Welcome to the Internet Crime Complaint Center. https://www.ic3.gov/
Issa, Y. (2019). “A profoundly masculine act”: Mass shootings, violence against women, and the amendment that could forge a path forward. California Law Review 107(2), 673-705. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z382V2C98F
Johnson, S. R. (2024, January 30). Vape, e-cigarette sales bans around the world. U.S. News. https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/countries-that-ban-the-sale-of-vapes-e-cigarettes
Kegler, S. R., Simon, T. R., Zwald, M. L., Chen, M. S., Mercy, J. A., Jones, C. M., Mercado-Crespo, M. C., Blair, J. M., Stone, D. M., Ottley, P. G., & Dills, J. (2022). Vital signs: Changes in firearm homicide and suicide rates—United States, 2019-2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 71(19), 656-663. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7119e1.htm?s_cid=mm7119e1_w
Kilmainham Gaol – Panopticon [Photograph]. Julian Dunn. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kilmainham_Gaol_-_Panopticon.jpg. CC-BY-2.0.
Kim, H., Wildeman, C., Jonson-Reid, M., & Drake, B. (2017). Lifetime prevalence of investigating child maltreatment among U.S. children. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), 274-280. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5227926/
Leemis, R. W., Friar, N., Khatiwada, S., Chen, M. S., Kresnow, M., Smith, S. G., Caslin, S., & Basile, K. C. (2022). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2016/2017 report on intimate partner violence. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nisvs/documentation/nisvsReportonSexualViolence.pdf
Lesbian couple dancing… [Photograph]. MoMo Productions from Getty Images via Canva Pro.
Lindemann, D. J. (2022). True Story: What reality TV says about us. Picador.
Lindsay, S. L. (2022). Damned if you do, damned if you don’t: How formerly incarcerated men navigate the labor market with prison credentials. Criminology 60(3), 455-479. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12307
Love, H., & Loh, T. H. (2023, December 7). Homelessness in U.S. cities and downtowns. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/homelessness-in-us-cities-and-downtowns/
Luo, F., Florence, C., Quispe-Agnoli, M., Ouyang, L., & Crosby, A. (2011). Impact of business cycles on U.S. suicide rates, 1928-2007. American Journal of Public Health, 101(6), 1139-1146. https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2010.300010
Man wearing face mask under… [Photograph]. Roman Tymochko from Pexels via Canva Pro.
Merton, R. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672-682. https://doi.org/10.2307/2084686.
Modern vape mod and cigarette… [Photograph]. pixelshot via Canva Pro.
Mueller, A. S., & Abrutyn, S. (2024). Life under Pressure: The Social Roots of Youth Suicide and What to Do About Them. Oxford University Press. ttps://doi-org.proxyko.uits.iu.edu/10.1093/oso/9780190847845.001.0001
Mueller, A. S., Abrutyn, S., Pescosolido, B., & Diefendorf, S. (2021). The social roots of suicide: Theorizing how the external social world matters to suicide and suicide prevention. Front. Psychol., 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621569
National domestic violence hotline [Photograph]. National Domestic Violence Hotline. https://www.thehotline.org/resources/general-social-media-toolkit-and-promotion-guidance/
National Institute of Justice. (2022, February 3). Public mass shootings: Database amasses details of a half century of U.S. mass shootings with firearms, generating psychosocial histories. https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/public-mass-shootings-database-amasses-details-half-century-us-mass-shootings
National Institute of Mental Health. (2024, February). Suicide. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/suicide
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2024, August 21). Drug Overdose Deaths: Facts and Figures. https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/trends-statistics/overdose-death-rates
National sexual assault hotline [Photograph]. RAINN. https://rainn.org/graphics-and-banners
National suicide prevention lifeline [Photograph]. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. https://www.samhsa.gov/mental-health/988/partner-toolkit/logo-branding
Pager, D. (2003). The mark of a criminal record. American Journal of Sociology, 108(5), 937-975. https://doi.org/10.1086/374403
Parents scolding their young… [Photograph]. JackF from Getty Images Signature via Canva Pro.
Park-Lee, E., Jamal, A., Cowan, H., Sawdey, M. D., Cooper, M. R., Birdsey, J., West, A., Cullen, K. A. (2024). Notes from the field: E-cigarette and nicotine pouch use among middle and high school students. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 73(35), 774-778. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/wr/mm7335a3.htm
Purchasing legal marijuana at… [Photograph]. stockstudioX from Getty Images Signature via Canva Pro.
Redfin. (2025). Los Angeles County, CA housing market. https://www.redfin.com/county/321/CA/Los-Angeles-County/housing-market
Reid, M. (2020). A qualitative review of cannabis stigmas at the twilight of prohibition. Journal of Cannabis Research 2, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42238-020-00056-8
Rent. (2025). Rental market trends in Los Angeles, CA. https://www.rent.com/california/los-angeles-apartments/rent-trends
Roberts, D. (2022). Torn apart: How the child welfare system destroys Black families–and how abolition can build a safer world. Basic Books.
Robertson, C.E., Pröllochs, N., Schwarzenegger, K., Pärnamets, P., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2023). Negativity drives online news consumption. Nature Human Behavior 7, 812–822 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01538-4
Robey, J. P., Massoglia, M., Light, M. T. (2023). A generational shift: Race and the declining lifetime risk of imprisonment. Demography 60(4), 977–1003. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-10863378
Ross, J. (2022, April 20). One in ten Black children in America are separated from their parents by the child-welfare system. A new book argues that’s no accident. Time. https://time.com/6168354/child-welfare-system-dorothy-roberts/
Saad, L. (2023b, August 22). Young adults in U.S. drinking less than in prior decades. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/509690/young-adults-drinking-less-prior-decades.aspx
Saad, L. (2023b, November 8). Grassroots support for legalizing marijuana hits record 70%. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/514007/grassroots-support-legalizing-marijuana-hits-record.aspx
Santos, M. R., Jaynes, C. M., & Thomas, D. M. (2023). How to overcome the cost of a criminal record for getting hired. Criminology, 61(3), 582-621. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12345
Schaeffer, K. (2024, April 10). 9 facts about Americans and marijuana. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/13/facts-about-marijuana
Selbin, J., Campos-Bui, S., Epstein, J., Lim, L., Nacino, S., Wilhelm, P., & Stommel, H. (2019, March 26). Homeless exclusion districts: How California business improvement districts use policy advocacy and policing practices to exclude homeless people from public space. UC Berkeley Public Law Research Paper. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3221446
Shaygan, A., Lambuth, J., Song, F., Hurtado, M., Lostustter, T. W., & Graupensperger. (2024). More than fun and games: Problematic sports betting and its adverse impact on mental health and well-being in young adults. Psychiatry Research, 342, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116258
Sleeping in class… [Photograph]. FatCamera from Getty Images Signature via Canva Pro.
Smith, D. E. (2011). The evolution of addiction medicine as a medical specialty. Virtual Mentor, 13(12), 900-905. 10.1001/virtualmentor.2011.13.12.mhst1-1112. https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/evolution-addiction-medicine-medical-specialty/2011-12
Smith, D. E. (2011, December). The evolution of addiction medicine as a medical specialty. AMA Journal of Ethics, 13(12), 900-905. 10.1001/virtualmentor.2011.13.12.mhst1-1112
State of California Accountability. (2025, May 13). Los Angeles County homelessness. https://www.accountability.ca.gov/county/los-angeles/homelessness/
The Sentencing Project. (2025). Growth in mass incarceration. https://www.sentencingproject.org/research/
Thomas, W. I., & Thomas, D. S. (1928). The child in America: Behavior problems and programs. Knopf.
Traffic security camera… [Photograph]. Bianca Birau’s Images via Canva Pro.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025a, April 17). Police and detectives. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/protective-service/police-and-detectives.htm
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025b, April 17). Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/probation-officers-and-correctional-treatment-specialists.htm
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025c, April 17). Substance abuse, behavioral disorder, and mental health counselors. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/substance-abuse-behavioral-disorder-and-mental-health-counselors.htm
U.S. Census Bureau. (v2024). QuickFacts. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045219
U.S. Department of Justice. (1994). Fact sheet: Drug-related crime. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/DRRC.PDF
U.S. Department of Justice. (2004). The nation’s two crime measures. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/ntcm.pdf
U.S. Department of Justice. (2022). Hate crimes. https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/civil-rights/hate-crimes
U.S. Department of Justice. (2024). FBI releases 2023 hate crime statistics. https://www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/hate-crime-statistics#piechart-description
Uggen, C., Larson, R., Shannon, S., & Pulido-Nava, A. (2020, October 30). Locked out 2020: Estimates of people denied voting rights due to a felony conviction. The Sentencing Project. https://www.sentencingproject.org/reports/locked-out-2020-estimates-of-people-denied-voting-rights-due-to-a-felony-conviction/
Violence Prevention Project. (2025, May 21). Mass shooters. https://www.theviolenceproject.org/mass-shooter-database/
Widra, E. (2024, June). States of incarceration: The global context 2024. Prison Policy Initiative. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/global/2024.html
World Health Organization. (2018, November 20). Age limits – Alcohol service/sales by country. https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.A1144
Yi, Y., Edwards, F. R., & Wildeman, C. (2020). Cumulative prevalence of confirmed maltreatment and foster care placement for US children by race/ethnicity, 2011-2016. American Journal of Public Health, 110(5), 704-709. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305554
Yu, W. (2018, June). Homelessness in the U.S., California and Los Angeles. UCLA Anderson Forecast. https://www.anderson.ucla.edu/documents/areas/ctr/forecast/reports/uclaforecast_June2018_Yu.pdf