LO 9.1: Explain how race and ethnicity are socially constructed.
Race is socially constructed and based on assumed physical, biological, and ancestral characteristics. The classification of humans into distinct racial groups began in the seventeenth century to justify slavery.
Scientific racism refers to the use of biological or genetic differences to justify and preserve racial inequality. Despite 99.9% of human DNA being identical, genes interact with the environment, resulting in physical and cultural diversity.
Race is not a biological concept, and it is impossible to sort humans into racial categories based solely on biology. Racial self-identification and perception are fluid and vary over time and place.
Racialization is the process by which groups of people and things become associated with race. The U.S. Census has revised racial categories multiple times, and the 2030 Census will introduce a new category for Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) Americans.
Ethnicity is based on sharing a common culture, such as behavior patterns, language, and religion. Like race, ethnicity is a fluid concept resulting from both self-identification and external perception.
The U.S. Census measures race and ethnicity by relying on the ancestral geographic origin of the person completing the form. For example, Filipinos could be counted as Latino instead of (or in addition to) Asian American due to their shared cultural background with Latina/o/x people.
LO 9.2: Describe how immigration, citizenship, and belonging are connected.
Immigration, citizenship, and belonging are interconnected. Patterns in immigration to the United States have changed over time. Major U.S. immigration laws affecting immigration include the Immigration Act of 1924, the 1965 Immigration Act, and the Immigration Act of 1990. Border policies are also influential on immigration patterns.
People immigrate for many reasons. Refugees and asylum seekers are often fleeing violence.
The concept of citizenship, includes birthright citizenship and the historical extension of citizenship rights to various racial and ethnic groups in the United States.
The citizenship experience of Mexican Americans was highlighted showing how while legal citizenship has been extended to this group, many feel that they do not have social citizenship.
LO 9.3: Discuss how racial boundaries are created and maintained.
The chapter discusses how racial boundaries are created and maintained through various means such as race, ethnicity, immigration status, and citizenship. These boundaries can be strictly enforced or more fluid, and they often involve exclusion of certain groups.
Assimilation is the process by which in-group and out-group members become more culturally alike. This can range from voluntary to forced assimilation. The chapter provides examples of forced assimilation, such as the removal of Indigenous children from their families and placing them in residential schools.
Pluralism is a condition where diverse groups are allowed to keep their cultural identities. The chapter highlights examples of pluralism in the United States and Canada, where cultural differences are maintained to varying extents.
Genocide is defined as the systematic destruction of people based on their group membership with the goal of eliminating the entire group. The chapter provides examples of genocides, including the Holocaust and the Rwandan Genocide.
Expulsion or forced displacement occurs when the dominant group uses extreme measures to make a subordinate group leave the region. The chapter discusses historical examples such as the Indian Removal Act and the Tulsa Race Massacre.
LO 9.4: Explain the different forms of racism.
Racism is defined as the social practice of applying different and usually substandard treatment to some groups due to the ideology that some racial groups are inferior. It involves both discrimination (actions) and prejudice (attitudes), which can exist independently of each other.
Overt racism is blatant and explicit, ranging from using racial slurs to inflicting violence. An example is the increase in anti-Asian hashtags and violence during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Color-blind racism ignores racial differences and conflicts, denying that race and racism matter. It includes beliefs in a meritocracy that dismiss racial barriers in education, such as the higher likelihood of Black students being in under-resourced schools.
Racial microaggressions are everyday slights, insults, and indignities directed toward people of color, often unintentional. An example is the experience of Mexican American college students who faced assumptions about their legal status and comments about their appearance.
Institutional racism is embedded in social structures, laws, and policies. An example is workplace policies that restrict hairstyles commonly worn by Black people, which limit their full participation in these spaces.
Colorism is a preference for lighter skin tones, involving prejudice and discrimination toward people with darker skin tones. Research shows that lighter-skinned racial minorities experience better outcomes in employment and health.
LO 9.5: Examine how racial segregation persists.
Segregation is the physical and social separation of different groups, and it typically does not involve complete separation.
De jure segregation occurs when laws require segregation in various aspects of life, including living areas, schools, workplaces, and more. The landmark Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in 1954 declared such segregation unconstitutional.
Resistance to desegregation, including the case of Ruby Bridges, the first Black child to integrate an all-White school in Louisiana, who faced significant hostility.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended several forms of de jure segregation and prohibited discrimination in public places, schools, and employment.
Legally enforced segregation is prohibited. De facto segregation persists in schools and neighborhoods, with many students attending racially segregated schools and people living in racially segregated neighborhoods.
Historical lending and realty practices, such as redlining and racial steering, contributed to the persistence of racially segregated neighborhoods.
Sundown towns are towns where specific racial groups were prohibited from living, and how these practices were formally prohibited by the Fair Housing Act of 1968.
The persistent racial wealth gap, with significant differences in wealth between White, Black, and Hispanic families, can be traced back to historical factors from the slave period in U.S. history.
LO 9.6: Discuss how children learn about race and racism.
Children learn about race and racism through socialization, which includes messages from parents, schools, peers, and media.
Research indicates that children as young as three years old are aware of racial-ethnic knowledge, and by the age of six, they may develop implicit biases related to race.
Studies have examined how White and Black parents socialize their children about race. This includes direct conversations and passive decisions related to media consumption, travel, extracurricular activities, and school curriculum.
Black mothers often engage in responsive racial socialization. Some choose predominantly Black schools to protect their children from racism and provide positive portrayals of blackness. Others seek to create a balance by involving their children in activities with other Black individuals.
Black mothers also teach their children about the risks associated with their race. This includes advising against certain clothing for safety reasons and addressing concerns about hair styling to prevent discrimination.
White parents generally engage less in racial socialization. When they do, they often promote a colorblind racial ideology rather than educating about systemic racism or White privilege.
Both Black and White parents use media to teach their children about race. However, Black parents tend to use media intentionally to provide positive portrayals of African Americans.