10.7 Stratification and the Climate Crisis

LO 10.7: Describe how the climate crisis and stratification are related.

At the macro-level, the climate crisis risks and harms reflect inequality between countries. In short, wealthier nations and individuals are contribute a larger share of greenhouse emissions and take part in activities that accelerate climate change, like private jet travel. In contrast, lower-income individuals and countries bear the brunt of climate change’s costs and adverse outcomes.

Worldwide, the wealthiest 10% of the world’s population produces 48% of carbon emissions (Chancel, 2022). In the United States, an income of $38,000 places that household among the world’s wealthiest 10% (Paddison, 2021). Approximately three-fourths of U.S. households are part of the world’s wealthiest households (Guzman & Kollar, 2024). Therefore, most households in the United States contribute a disproportionate share of carbon emissions (Paddison, 2021). About 25% of household carbon emissions come from utilities (heating and cooling), another 23% come from transportation (fuel), and 16.7% come from food (production and waste) (Taiebat & Xu, 2019).

In North America, however, 68.8% of carbon emissions are produced by the wealthiest 10% of individuals (Chancel, 2022). An annual income of at least $178,000 places a household among the wealthiest 10% in the United States (Paddison, 2023). The wealthiest U.S. households live in larger houses (and may have multiple houses) and fly more often (including using private jets), contributing much more to global emissions than the rest of the population.

Most global greenhouse emissions come from industry and agriculture, not individuals (Ritchie, 2020). The production of goods like cement, iron, clothes, and other consumer goods produces global emissions through the burning of fossil fuels. Goods must be transported by trucks, ships, and planes that use fossil fuels. Food production, especially beef cattle production, is intensive, resulting in greater greenhouse gas emissions than other food sources (see Figure 10.8) (United Nations, 2025a). Crops must be grown to feed beef cattle, which results in deforestation and the use of fertilizers that are harmful to the environment. Beef cattle produce methane, which is a greenhouse gas. Moreover, transportation, refrigeration, and packaging of the product, as well as consumer waste, also have an impact.

Globally, households contribute 7.14% of emissions from passenger travel (fuel) and 10.9% from residential buildings (heating and cooling) (Ritchie, 2020). Individuals could make lifestyle choices that produce lower emissions, like taking a train instead of flying, using a bike instead of a car, living in a smaller home, and reducing their meat consumption and food waste. These activities are within an individual’s control and would produce the greatest reduction in carbon emissions (Paddison, 2021).

Individuals, however, make lifestyle choices within a social context that makes their choices preferable or easier. For example, most cities in the United States are designed for cars, not bicycles, which means that most people use a vehicle instead of a bicycle. In contrast, many European cities are built more densely and have prioritized the safety of cyclists. They also have more trains connecting cities and suburbs, which contributes to more people using bicycles or public transportation over cars for travel. 

Photo 10.21

Bicycles are a Primary Means of Transportation in Many European Cities

Moreover, capitalist economies (see Chapter 6) promote growth regardless of societal or environmental costs and whether it improves society’s standard of living (Carolan, 2017). For example, the rise in fast fashion sped up the rate at which people buy clothing to such an extent that people refer to this clothing as throwaway clothing (wear it once or twice and then discard it). The environmental impact of fast fashion is related to the production of fiber used in clothing, the transportation of the product, and the disposal of the product in landfills (Williams, 2022). Fast fashion has pressured other clothing manufacturers to produce new styles more often and reduce their quality to compete on price, resulting in even more clothing destined for landfills.

In general, nations with capitalist economies have higher incomes per capita and contribute more to climate change than lower-income nations. Lower-income nations, however, face the consequences of climate change that far surpass their contribution to the problem. Lower-income countries are working to mitigate the effects of hurricanes, cyclones, and landslides. Still, as storms have become more intense and frequent due to climate change, their mitigation efforts have failed. For instance, Caribbean islands have been building homes to withstand category four hurricanes. Still, they are now experiencing more frequent category five hurricanes (Khadka, 2021). Many of these nations do not have the economic resources to protect themselves, and their investments did not account for the increasing strength and frequency of hurricanes. Overall, lower-income countries are experiencing the most harm from climate change. However, they have contributed the least to its acceleration.