LO 3.1: Explain how social structure and social institutions are related.
Social structures are sets of relationships and patterned interactions that influence behavior and attitudes. Social institutions are organized ways of meeting a group’s social needs and are part of social structures. Examples include Christianity as a dominant religion and democracy as a form of government in the United States.
Social structures guide behavior consistently even when individuals change. They shape social action but do not compel individuals to act in one specific way.
Social institutions like religion and government provide a sense of community, expectations of behavior, and distribute power and authority.
A functionalist perspective focuses on the social needs a social institution meets and its role in the overall functioning of society. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted education, work, and family, showing their interdependence.
LO 3.2: Examine religion as a social institution.
Religion is a belief system concerned with the sacred, separating the sacred from the profane. Émile Durkheim explained that sacred objects and ideas are extraordinary and awe-inspiring, while profane objects are part of everyday life.
Religion connects people through shared beliefs, rituals, symbols, a sense of belonging, guiding values, and regular social practices.
It endures beyond individuals and fulfills various social needs or functions: provides a framework for understanding the world, especially during challenging times, gives individuals and groups a sense of belonging and identity, and provides norms for everyday life, including diet, clothing, and socializing.
Max Weber argued that Protestant beliefs (including predestination) and practices contributed to the growth of capitalism. Early Protestants used financial success as a sign of chosen status, leading to the growth of capitalism.
Karl Marx viewed religion as a tool used by capitalists to keep workers in a subordinate position. Religion encourages acceptance of poor conditions by focusing on rewards in the afterlife. Contemporary research supports Marx’s claim, showing that religion can suppress progressive political views.
LO 3.3: Contrast groups and networks.
Religion forms the basis of membership for some group. A group is a social system where individuals regularly interact. The smallest group is a dyad (two individuals), followed by a triad (three individuals). Groups may arise from membership in the same social category.
Primary groups are small, involve one-on-one interaction, and all members know each other (e.g., families, friendship cliques). Secondary groups are more formal, larger, and not all members know each other (e.g., religious congregations, large college classes). Primary group membership can lead to secondary group membership and vice versa.
In-groups hold the most power and can influence others. Out-groups have the least power and may be persecuted by in-groups.
Networks are connections and interactions between individuals and groups. Strong ties (family, friends) and weak ties (acquaintances) both play roles in finding jobs. Ideas and beliefs can spread through social networks.
LO 3.4: Describe bureaucracies.
Bureaucracies are formal organizations that use rules and efficiency to meet specific needs. They have rules and procedures, impersonality of positions, hierarchy of authority, and division of labor. Governments, religious bodies, corporations, and schools are often bureaucratic.
Religious groups have formal rules and procedures, documented in sacred and profane documents. They have a hierarchical structure of authority, such as the Pope leading the Roman Catholic Church. Positions within religious bureaucracies are impersonal and replaceable. They also have a division of labor, with specific roles for different tasks.
Bureaucracies have become the organizational form for many human activities, including education, healthcare, and governments. Bureaucratic characteristics can depersonalize social life and limit individual and group agency.
McDonald’s is an example of a bureaucracy that incorporates principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. Efficiency occurs when processes are fine-tuned to deliver goods or services quickly. Calculability refers to the quantitative and standardized features of products and services. Predictability occurs when there is consistency in menu, prices, and operations. Control limits on choices for employees and customers.
LO 3.5: Explain power and authority.
Bureaucratic design disperses power and authority within formal organizations. Governments decide who has power and the rules around it. Power can be obtained through force, norms, and institutions. Types of power include ideological, economic, political, and military.
There are several types of power. Ideological power: involves influence over ideas, often through charismatic authority. Economic power involves control over financial resources, such as ownership and employment. Political power involves making and enforcing laws, stemming from traditional or legal-rational authority. Military power uses violence or physical force to ensure compliance.
Groups using a pluralist model of power have power distributed among many groups, contributing to stability. Voting rights in democratic societies allow citizens to elect leaders and participate in civic engagement. Political participation varies among sociodemographic groups, influencing political power.
However, power tends to be concentrated in the hands of a few. The iron law of oligarchy occurs when organizations are run by a small group of leaders. The power elite are individuals with overlapping power in government, military, and economy. Nepotism involves hiring or promoting based on familial or social connections.
LO 3.6: Discuss the process of religious and political socialization.
Religious socialization is the process by which groups transmit religious norms to others. Some secular parents provide religious education to their children, while others do not. Young adults in Ghana, India, and Poland mostly conform to their family’s religious norms but also rethink and make decisions about their beliefs as adults, suggesting the power of childhood socialization on adult religious participation.
Political socialization is the process by which individuals develop values and beliefs related to politics and government. Research shows gendered differences in political interest and ambition that begin in childhood and persist into adulthood.
LO 3.7: Describe the U.S. and global religious landscapes.
Religion is influential in U.S. culture, with 72% of adults considering it important. 74% of U.S. adults have a religious preference, with 67.3% identifying as Christians. There is a decline in overall religiosity, but devout individuals attend worship regularly. Evangelical Protestantism and religious fundamentalism are notable trends. The number of people with no religious affiliation is rising, with increases in atheists and agnostics. Less than half of U.S. adults belong to a house of worship, with younger adults being less likely to belong. Declines in religious affiliation vary by region, with faster declines in the Pacific West, New England, and some Midwestern states.
Christianity is the largest religious group globally (28.8%), followed by Muslims (25.6%) and the religiously unaffiliated (24.2%) . The number of religiously unaffiliated people is growing, with more people leaving Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Christians are geographically widespread, with significant populations in the Americas, Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Europe.
The January 6, 2021, attack on the U.S. Capitol exemplifies the use of religious imagery for political goals. White Christian nationalism uses Christian language and symbols to promote ideologies like White supremacy and patriarchy. White Christian nationalist beliefs contrast with democratic principles, and fewer than half of U.S. adults support these beliefs.