5.0 Learning Outcomes and Introduction

Introduction

Fascination with crime is not new and has long been a focus in popular entertainment. The crime genre in literature began in the early 1800s (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes, Edgar Allan Poe). The television show, Law & Order, began in 1990 and has led to at least three spin-offs. The franchise’s premise is that (most) plots are (loosely) “ripped from the headlines.” There are many similar shows on television and streaming, ranging from dramas (the CSI franchise) to reality TV (The First 48, Cops). Moreover, one of the most popular podcast genres is true crime (My Favorite Murder, Crime Junkie). Crime stories are everywhere and have a long history.

Crime is one form of deviance, or violation of norms. This chapter is about deviance, but focuses on crime as a kind of deviance. Sociologists have long used a sociological eye to study how social groups address and construct deviance and crime. For example, Émile Durkheim, considered one of the first sociologists, focused on understanding the function of deviance. His work is discussed later in this chapter.

It is through socialization that people learn how to conform and what a social group considers deviance. Moreover, people socialize others into deviant subcultures, like goths, hackers, or bikers. Thus, people learn deviance through socialization, but socialization alone does not explain deviance. For instance, regarding crime, there is no direct line between something happening in childhood, such as trauma or watching violent television, and committing crime later in life.

The patterns of stratification in society are reflected in deviance—specifically, in crime. For example, men and women take part in crime at different rates (men commit more crime). Men commit about three of four violent offenses (aggravated assault, homicide, rape, robbery) (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2025a). Further, there are different rates of victimization along race, gender, and age. Women are more likely to be victims of crime compared to men (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2025). Black people are also more likely to be victims of crime compared to other racial groups (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2025). Therefore, the stratification in society is reflected in the criminal justice system.  

Sociologists have long been interested in how social structure makes deviance inevitable. Émile Durkheim (1982) argued that even in a society of saints, deviance would still happen because the boundary between what is and is not socially acceptable would shift. For example, in a school of high-achieving students, earning a B instead of an A would be considered deviant, even though both are excellent grades.

What a social group classifies as deviant can change over time. Sports betting was illegal in the United States, except for in Nevada, until the U.S. Supreme Court overturned that law in 2018. Today, 40 states have legalized sports betting (American Gaming Association, 2025). However, even though the legal status of an activity may change, it could still be considered deviant. It is unclear whether U.S. adults view sports betting as deviant, though the media has shared many stories about its risks, suggesting some level of deviance. Research has shown that sports betting is related to adverse effects on mental health and overall well-being among young adults (Shyagan et al., 2024). Examining social change related to behaviors that were once considered criminal or deviant can shed light on the social construction of deviance and crime.