8.2b Sociological Explanations of Gender, Sex, and Sexuality

Gender structure theory highlights how, at a macro level, gender is a “social system that restricts and encourages patterned behavior and involves inequality” (Risman, 2018, p. 29). In this view, socialization by families, media, schools, religion, and other social institutions leads to gender differences. Moreover, gender difference is a social structure built on stratification. This means that organizational rules and norms are based on assumptions about gender, such as who takes care of children. Further, gender is an individual accomplishment achieved through interaction with others. That is, people communicate their gender to others through their speech, dress, interests, and behavior. Gender structure theory builds upon several other sociological theories of gender, which provide complementary pieces of the puzzle of gender, as discussed next.

People unconsciously use gender frames to structure social interaction. Individuals perceive other people’s gender and use that perception as a primary frame for social interaction with that person. In other words, individual’s use their gender and the gender of those they meet to decide how to interact with others. Gender is the frame people used to decide everything from what topics of conversation are acceptable to who should take the lead.

Understanding that gender frames or shapes social interaction helps explain how social groups reproduce gender stratification, even when policies or laws support gender equality. According to Ridgeway (2011; see also Fisk & Ridgeway, 2018), gender stratification persists partially due to cultural beliefs and gendered stereotypes about men and women that give status to men. For example, suppose leadership is believed to be a masculine characteristic. In that case, people may unconsciously defer to men to provide leadership in a mixed-gender group.

West and Zimmerman (2002, p. 16; 1987) propose that gender “is something that one does, and does recurrently, in interaction with others.” From a micro-level perspective, doing gender refers to how people clarify their sex category in interactions with others.

People choose their clothing, mannerisms, interests, and behavior because of how it communicates their gender. For example, men often adopt a wide sitting position, and women frequently cross their legs or ankles when seated (see Photo 8.6) (Vrugt & Luyerink, 2000). While most people do not think much about how they sit, as children people are socialized to sit in gendered ways. Girls are taught to cross their legs or ankles and boys, usually, are not. Through socialization, children learn to perform the gender associated with their sex category to avoid stigmatization (Risman, 2018).

Photo 8.6

People Do Gender in Many Ways, Including How They Sit

Man and woman sitting out… [Photograph]. RossHelen via Canva Pro.

The social structure enforces a gender binary using informal sanctions (a look) or formal sanctions. For example, in 2022, the governor of Texas signed a directive to child protective services to investigate families of transgender children if the family has sought gender-affirming healthcare. Gender-affirming healthcare may include treatment such as reversable puberty blockers, which delay puberty. Texas defined gender-affirming healthcare as child abuse despite substantial research documenting the medical and mental health benefits of such as lower deaths by suicide (Matouk & Wald, 2022). As of this writing, 27 states have laws or policies limiting gender-affirming care for minors (KFF, 2025). Therefore, the legal system socially constructs gender and sex.

Applying a social construction approach to gender, sex, and sexuality directs focus to the assumptions made around sexual scripts for sexual behavior. Sexual scripts express the norms and expectations of sexual interactions. Gender is a key component of several sexual scripts. For example, who should set up the date, who pays, and who initiates sexual activity are all linked to expectations of men and women. Traditionally, men were expected to do all these things and women were not. Today, women can also do these things. Regardless, sexual scripts around dating are heteronormative. Heteronormativity broadly refers to how heterosexuality is institutionalized as legitimate and privileged, while other forms of sexuality are oppressed (Marchia & Sommer, 2019).

Photo 8.7

Sexual Scripts Include a Man Opening the Car Door for His Date

Man opening the car door… [Photograph]. Syuhei Inoue from Studio Japan via Canva Pro.