LO 1: Describe how gender, sex, and sexuality are socially constructed.
Gender, sex, and sexuality are socially constructed, meaning culture decides the criteria for assigning these categories and influences the norms and expectations associated with them. In the U.S., “sex” and “gender” are often used interchangeably, but sociologists recognize them as distinct concepts. Gender refers to behaviors and attitudes associated with biological sex. The U.S. has historically enforced a gender binary system (boy/girl, man/woman), but this has begun to shift with the recognition of nonbinary options for official documents.
Sex categorization in the U.S. starts at birth based on external genitalia, but physical bodies do not always conform to binary categories. Gender identity refers to the gender category with which individuals identify. Cisgender individuals have matching birth sex and gender identity, while transgender individuals do not. Gender nonconforming individuals do not adhere to the norms associated with their gender. This can include cisgender, transgender, and non-binary people.
Sexual identity is distinct from gender identity and includes feelings, emotions, and behaviors about sexual activity. Different sexual identities include asexual, bisexual, heterosexual, homosexual, and pansexual. LGBTQ identification varies by age, race, state, and education. Younger adults are more likely to identify as LGBTQ compared to older adults.
LO 2: Compare how the sociological perspectives examine gender, sex, and sexuality.
Sociologists use the sociological eye to identify and explain patterns of behavior and attitudes, focusing on how gender, sex, and sexuality are socially constructed and change over time.
Scientific research across various disciplines shows that gender differences are not solely a result of biological factors. Environmental factors significantly influence biology, and there is tremendous biological variation related to sex among humans. Genes are not destiny, and hormones such as estrogens and testosterone are present in all human bodies and depend on the environment. Hormone levels fluctuate with age, reproductive state, and nutritional state.
Gender structure theory highlights how gender is a social system that restricts and encourages patterned behavior and involves inequality. Socialization by families, media, schools, religion, and other social institutions leads to gender differences.
People unconsciously use gender frames to structure social interaction, which helps explain how social groups reproduce gender stratification, even when policies or laws support gender equality.
Gender is something that people do recurrently in interaction with others. People choose their clothing, mannerisms, interests, and behavior to communicate their gender.
Sexual scripts express the norms and expectations of sexual interactions, with gender being a key component. Heteronormativity institutionalizes heterosexuality as legitimate and privileged while oppressing other forms of sexuality.
LO 3: Explain gender socialization, sexual socialization, and gendered sexual socialization.
Gender socialization is the process by which people learn the expectations of behavior and attitudes associated with their gender. This begins even before birth and is influenced by parents’ decisions about toys, clothing, and activities.
Gendered sexual socialization is the process by which people learn sexual norms linked with their gender. This includes how parents and teachers treat cross-gender play and romantic behaviors differently for boys and girls. Observations in preschool classrooms showed that teachers and children encourage heterosexual behavior but discourage same-gender attraction, reinforcing heteronormativity.
Children learn that boys have power over girls’ bodies, as seen in playground interactions where boys’ aggressive behavior towards girls is not disciplined. School dress codes and peer interactions reflect gender biases, with girls being disciplined for clothing that shows “too much skin” while boys are not. Peers play a significant role in gender socialization and gendered sexual socialization, with bullying and homophobic slurs being used to enforce masculinity norms.
Gender socialization during childhood prepares individuals for gendered roles as adults, reinforcing gender stratification in the workplace.
LO 4: Explain how gendered work organizations uphold gender stratification.
Gender stratification is evident in the workforce, with a larger share of men participating in the labor force compared to women. The labor force participation rate for men in 2024 was 70.5%, while for women, it was 58.7%. Women spend significantly more time on unpaid care for children and older adults compared to men, which contributes to the gender gap in labor force participation. The lack of public spending on family benefits, such as government-funded childcare, also plays a role. There is a persistent gender wage gap, with women earning less than men in all industrialized countries. In the United States, women earn 83.6 cents for every dollar men earn. The wage gap is further influenced by race, with White and Asian American men and women earning higher wages than Black or Latino men and women.
Certain occupations are predominantly filled by one gender, which exacerbates the wage gap. For example, more than 80% of elementary and middle school teachers are women, and they earn 90.8% of what men in the same roles earn. Mothers often face a wage penalty, while fathers may receive a wage bonus. This phenomenon is part of the gendered substructures in work organizations. The glass ceiling prevents women from reaching top leadership positions, and the glass escalator benefits men in women-dominated fields.
Gender-based harassment, including sexual harassment, is another barrier that women face in the workplace. This harassment can lead to job changes and long-term economic consequences. African American women experience racialized sexual harassment, which includes both racism and sexism.
Despite progress in women’s employment and education, work organizations are still designed around men as ideal workers, contributing to continued gender stratification.
LO 5: Describe how structural sexism affects health.
Sexism consists of prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors directed toward individuals or groups based on their perceived sex or gender. Sexism is not only about individual attitudes and actions but also structural, meaning it is embedded in social systems.
Structural sexism helps explain gender health disparities by examining how the inequitable distribution of power and resources affects health. Homan (2019) analyzed how structural sexism at macro, meso, and micro levels affects men’s and women’s health. At the macro level, social institutions distribute power and resources along gender lines, and states with more extensive gender stratification exhibit structural sexism. Homan used three measures to examine health: the number of chronic conditions, self-rated health, and quality of physical functioning. Six measures were used to assess macro-structural sexism, encompassing economic, political, cultural, and physical/reproductive dimensions. As macro-structural sexism increases, health declines for both men and women. Structural sexism is correlated with employment, health insurance, and paid sick leave. Women in sex-segregated occupations are less likely to have health insurance coverage. Less access to employer-provided health insurance is an economic factor related to employment in sex-segregated occupations, leading to health-related consequences.
LO 6: Describe how laws and public opinion has changed regarding LGBTQ rights.
Social changes regarding gender, sex, and sexuality have occurred through court decisions, legislation, and shifting public opinion. The legal system has expanded rights for LGBTQ people, with the U.S. Supreme Court playing a role in this process. The U.S. Supreme Court has made several landmark decisions affecting LGBTQ rights, including the right to marry, protection from employment discrimination, and the overturning of sodomy laws.
Public opinion on LGBTQ rights has grown more supportive over time, with significant shifts occurring after favorable Supreme Court decisions. Legal decisions can shift social norms, but individual opinions may not change as quickly. For example, the Obergefell v. Hodges decision shifted social norms but not necessarily individual opinions. Attitudes towards same-sex sexual relationships have become more positive, especially since 2010.
There is ongoing debate and legislation regarding gender diversity, with some groups promoting acceptance and others promoting restrictions. Recent laws in the U.S. have affected transgender people, including bathroom usage and participation in sports.
Social movement organizations play a key role in driving social change, alongside legal and public opinion shifts.