9.0 Learning Objectives and Introduction

Introduction

In the early 1900s, W. E. B. Du Bois (2007, p. 8) wrote, “[t]he problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line.” Chapter 9 turns a sociological eye on the color line, which is the basis for legal or cultural segregation of people by race and thus for extensive racial stratification. The founders of the United States took race into account to decide who would be citizens of the new nation and who would be enslaved.

In the nineteenth century, more immigrants began arriving to the United States  from countries outside Northern and Western Europe. To maintain the color line, the United States restricted immigration based on the country of origin. For example, the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) banned Chinese people from immigrating to the United States for ten years. Later, the United States restricted immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

Moreover, the Immigration Act of 1924 set up a quota system that allowed more immigrants from Northern and Western Europe. These immigrants were often of Protestant faith. As a result, fewer immigrants, who were often Jewish or Catholic, could come from Southern and Eastern Europe and other parts of the world (see Figure 9.1). Since its founding, the United States has enacted many laws to shape the racial and ethnic composition of the country.

U.S. and state laws also decide what schools can teach about race and racism. Since 2017, at least 21 states have passed laws restricting such education, and 14 have expanded education on race and racism (Natanson et al., 2024). Legislative efforts have focused on banning schools from teaching “divisive topics” (White privilege, structural racism, critical race theory) and specific books like The 1619 Project. School instruction has become a target because schools play an essential role in children’s socialization.

Restricting school instruction and books about race and racism are examples of how racism is embedded in the social structure. When the law prohibits educators from teaching specific topics, individual attitudes among teachers, students, or parents matter less. Educators are expected to follow the rules and may have little choice but to comply to keep their job. In other words, while individuals can be the perpetrator or victim of racism, what sociologists argue is that racism persists regardless of the intent and attitudes of individuals (Bonilla-Silva, 2022).   Today, the color line is still a significant factor in the social organization of the United States. Immigration laws, wealth inequality, and other issues, continue to be shaped by attitudes and customs designed to maintain the dominant racial group’s power. This chapter explores how the social construction of color, race, ethnicity, and citizenship advantages some groups while disadvantaging others. Furthermore, the chapter introduces and expands on helpful terminology for discussing race, examines how groups enforce racial boundaries, and illustrates how parents teach their children about race and racism through socialization. Overall, racial stratification is a powerful force that shapes all aspects of social life.